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Today, continue reading Chapter 2 of "Beyond Perception" - What is Critical Thinking?

Summary:

Have you ever been told by a teacher during class to take a few minutes to think? How did you think about it? Probably just closed your eyes and rested, or looked at other classmates pondering, and pretended to do the same with a furrowed brow? And then you kept thinking in your mind, but didn't know how to think?

Most people have similar experiences. Many people may just tell you to think, but they don't tell you how to think, what thinking is, or what qualities good thinkers possess.

• The most interesting and shocking contradiction in life is that on the one hand, everyone insists on logic and rational reasoning. On the other hand, they cannot demonstrate this ability, and when others demonstrate it, they are unwilling to accept it.

  Most of what we call logical reasoning is just finding reasons for what we believe.

  Clear thinking is very rare, most of us don't think at all most of the time, we just feel.

Let's make an important distinction between thinking and feeling: I feel and I think can sometimes be used interchangeably but can be confusing. Feeling is the subjective reflection of emotions, moods, and desires; it is usually spontaneous and not the result of conscious mental activity. We don't have to use our minds to feel angry when we are humiliated, feel afraid when threatened, or feel sympathy when we see a picture of a hungry child. These feelings arise spontaneously.

Feelings are very useful in guiding us to pay attention to the issues we should think about, but they are never a good substitute for thinking because they are unreliable. We often feel like doing things that are harmful to us, such as smoking or spending money on lottery tickets.

On the contrary, thinking is a conscious mental process that is carried out to solve problems, make decisions, or gain understanding. Feelings have no purpose other than self-expression, while thinking helps to go beyond oneself and achieve knowledge or take action. This does not mean that thinking is infallible. In fact, most of "Beyond Perception" is about revealing the errors in thinking and how to avoid them.

There are two types of thinking: creative and critical. This book focuses on the latter, and the essence of critical thinking is evaluation. Therefore, we can use critical thinking to test various theories and claims, judge their strengths and weaknesses. In other words, critical thinking is about finding answers, it is an exploration. One of the most important techniques used in critical thinking is to ask probing questions. Non-critical thinkers accept their initial thoughts and the surface value of others' statements, while critical thinkers question all ideas in the following ways:

Idea: My teacher intentionally gave me a low score on my essay, and he values some topics more than others.

Question: Did he use the same grading criteria for everyone? Is this different weighting criteria justified?

And so on.

Critical thinkers also analyze issues by asking questions. For example, consider the issue of values. When discussing it, some people say, "Our country has lost its traditional values" and "If parents and teachers emphasize moral values, there will be less crime, especially violent crime."

Critical thinking may prompt us to ask:

1. What is the relationship between values and beliefs? What is the relationship between values and beliefs?
2. Are all values valuable?
3. How aware are ordinary people of their own values? Is it possible that many people are self-deceived about their true values?
4. Where do a person's values come from? Are they from within themselves or from external sources? From thoughts or feelings?
5. Does education change a person's values? If so, is this change always for the better?
6. Should parents or teachers try to shape children's values?

There are many misconceptions about critical thinking:

One is the belief that being able to support one's beliefs through reasoning makes one a critical thinker. In fact, everyone has their own reasoning, no matter how insufficient it may be. The test of critical thinking is whether these reasoning are good or not, whether they are sufficient.

Another misconception is that critical thinkers never imitate the thoughts and actions of others. If that were true, then every critical thinker would be eccentric.

The third misconception is that critical thinking is synonymous with having many correct answers in one's mind. Of course, there is nothing wrong with having correct answers. However, when the correct answers are not easily obtained, critical thinking also includes the process of finding answers.

Another misconception is that critical thinking cannot be acquired through learning, that people either "have" or "do not have" critical thinking. On the contrary, critical thinking is a matter of habit. By cultivating the characteristics of critical thinkers, even the most negligent and hasty thinkers can become critical thinkers. This does not mean that everyone has equal thinking potential, but rather that everyone can achieve remarkable improvements.

One characteristic of critical thinkers is the skill of asking appropriate questions, and another is controlling one's mental activities.

Critical thinkers:

"Are honest with themselves, admit what they don't know, recognize their limitations, and see their flaws."

"Regard problems and controversial issues as exciting challenges."

"Make an effort to understand complexity, maintain curiosity and patience, and be prepared to spend time solving problems."

"Base judgments on evidence rather than personal preferences, and postpone judgments as long as the evidence is insufficient. When new evidence reveals errors, they modify their judgments."

"Recognize that extreme views (whether conservative or liberal) are rarely correct, so they avoid them, practice fairness, and seek balanced perspectives."

Non-critical thinkers:

"Pretend to know more than they actually do, ignore their limitations, and assume their views are flawless."

"Regard problems and controversial issues as threats or harm to themselves."

"Lack patience with complexity, prefer to remain confused rather than make an effort to understand."

"Base judgments on first impressions and intuitive reactions. They do not care about the quantity and quality of evidence and stubbornly cling to their own views."

"Neglect the need for balance, prioritize views that support their preconceived ideas."

Critical thinking relies primarily on mental constraints. Effective thinkers constrain their own thinking, guide their thinking rather than being controlled by it, and refuse to accept any idea or concept until they have examined and confirmed it.

The basic activities of critical thinking:

1. Investigation
   Find evidence - gather information that answers key questions about the topic.
   The evidence must be relevant and sufficient.
2. Interpretation
   Determine the significance of the evidence.
   This interpretation must be more reasonable than competing interpretations.
3. Judgment
   Draw conclusions on the issue.
   This conclusion must pass the test of logic.

"As we noted earlier, irresponsible thinkers first choose their conclusions and then find reasons to prove their correctness. They fail to realize that the only conclusions worth making are based on a thorough understanding of the problem or issue and its possible solutions or resolutions. Speculation, guesswork, and forming hunches and hypotheses are acceptable? Absolutely. These activities provide a useful starting point for the thinking process (and we cannot avoid doing so even after trying). The key is not to let hunches and hypotheses manipulate our thinking and predetermine our conclusions."

Critical Thinking and Writing

Writing can have two broad goals: discovering ideas and communicating ideas.

There is no doubt that most of the writing you do in school belongs to the latter. However, the former can also be very useful, not only for organizing the various ideas you have generated, but also for stimulating the flow of new ideas. For some reason, the act of writing down one idea itself seems to generate other ideas.

Whenever you write to develop ideas, focus on the question you are investigating and record all your thoughts, questions, and assertions. Don't worry about organization or correctness. If ideas come slowly, be patient. If some ideas come suddenly, don't try to slow down the process and develop any one of them; just record them all (there will be time later to elaborate and correct them). Confront your mental labor directly, but also be sensitive to ideas on the edge of consciousness. They often prove to be valuable.
If you have recorded your discoveries well and critically thought about the ideas you have generated, the work of written communication will be relatively easy and rewarding. You will have more ideas to develop and organize - ideas that have been carefully evaluated."

Critical Thinking and Discussion

On the positive side, discussion deepens understanding and promotes problem-solving and decision-making. On the negative side, it can create nervousness, hostility, and leave important issues unresolved. Unfortunately, in contemporary culture, the most important mode of discussion - radio and television talk shows - often produces the latter effect.

Here are some simple guidelines to ensure that the discussions you participate in (in the classroom, workplace, or at home) are more civilized, meaningful, and productive than what you see on TV. By following these guidelines, you will set a good example for those around you.

Prepare in advance whenever possible.

First, consider what knowledge you already have about the topic. Then decide how to expand your knowledge and spend some time doing so (a focused internet search can find a wealth of information on almost any topic in 15 or 20 minutes). Finally, try to anticipate the different viewpoints that may be expressed in the discussion and consider the relative merits of each viewpoint. At this point, keep your conclusions fairly tentative so that you remain open to the facts and explanations that others will present.

Set reasonable expectations

People rarely change their minds easily, especially on long-held beliefs. And when confronted with different viewpoints, they naturally want to know what supports those viewpoints. Expect your viewpoints to be challenged and respond gracefully and elegantly.

Abandon egocentrism and individualism

For a discussion to be effective, it requires an atmosphere of mutual respect and civilized courtesy. Egocentrism clearly leads to disrespect for others - especially "I am more important than others", "My views are better than anyone else's", and "The rules do not apply to me". Personal agendas, such as disliking a participant or being overly attached to a particular viewpoint, can lead to personal attacks and unwillingness to listen to others' viewpoints.

Also, avoid speaking habits that distract attention, actively listen, judge thoughts responsibly, and resist the urge to interrupt.

Avoiding Plagiarism:#

Once thoughts are expressed in language and published, they become "intellectual property," and the author's rights to them are the same as those to physical objects such as houses or cars. The only real difference is that intellectual property is acquired through mental effort rather than money. Anyone who has struggled to solve a problem or express thoughts in clear and meaningful words can appreciate how mentally demanding it can be.
Plagiarism is the act of passing off someone else's thoughts and language as one's own. It is a dual offense because it involves both theft and deception. In academia, plagiarism is regarded as a moral offense and is punished by failing papers or courses, and even expulsion from institutions. Outside academia, if the owner of the thoughts or language is willing to sue, it is a possible crime."

When US Senator Joseph Biden sought the 1988 Democratic presidential nomination, he was exposed for plagiarizing speech fragments from British politician Neil Kinnock and Robert Kennedy, as well as learning that he had plagiarized much of the content of a "legal article" while in law school. The successive scandals led Biden to withdraw from the candidate competition and continued to tarnish his reputation."

Some plagiarism is intentional, while others are careless.

If an author's thoughts provoke a reaction in your mind - such as a question, a connection to something you have read, or an experience that supports or questions what the author says - write it down and enclose it in square brackets (not parentheses) so that you know it is your own when reviewing your notes.